Box Car War: Logistics of the Civil War

INTRODUCTION

The first battle of the Civil War began months before the first shot was fired. With the secession of South Carolina in December of 1860, Major Robert Anderson, commanding the Federal garrison at Fort Moultrie, near Charleston, made a crucial decision. He moved his command from Fort Moultrie to Fort Sumter, located in Charleston Harbor. He believed that Fort Sumter was more defensible against attack by the secessionist state troops. However, by abandoning Fort Moultrie, Major Anderson knew that his supplies would run out quickly, and his 85 man garrison would be forced to surrender. An effort by Washington authorities to send assistance to the beleaguered soldiers met with failure.

With the inauguration of President Lincoln, the decision was made to make another attempt to supply the fort. President Lincoln informed the Governor of South Carolina of his intension to resupply the fort with provisions only. However, the Confederate government in Montgomery, Alabama made the decision to fire on Fort Sumter in order to force its surrender before the arrival of the relief ships. General P.T.G. Beauregard, in command of Southern forces at Charleston, communicated to Major Anderson that if he did not surrender, the fort would be fired upon. Major Anderson declined the opportunity to surrender, but told Beauregard, "If you do not batter the fort to pieces about us, we shall be starved out in a few days." Sure enough, thirty-four hours after the firing, the garrison was out of food and nearly out of ammunition - forcing Major Anderson to surrender Fort Sumter to the Confederates.

Over the next four years, two great battles would be waged in the former United States: the battle to preserve or destroy the Federal Union, and the battle to supply and resupply the vast armies in the field with everything from uniforms, to weapons and ammunition, to shelter and medical care.

THE CALL FOR TROOPS

After the surrender of Fort Sumter, President Lincoln called for 75,000 ninety day volunteers in the remaining "loyal" states to suppress the rebellion. Two days after Lincoln's request, Virginia declared they would join the Confederacy, followed within weeks by, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina. To these states, President Lincoln's call for troops would have forced them to fight against fellow Southerners, which they were not willing to do.

The Confederacy, now composed of eleven states, were confident that they had the right to secede and were equally confident that the North would let them go rather than risk full scale war. Northerners, however, believed that a brief show of force would put an end to the rebellion and bring the Southern states quickly back into line. Both North and South severely underestimated the convictions of the other, and the country would soon be engulfed in a long and costly war.

PREPARING FOR WAR

The early demands of supplying the immediate needs of the vast armies were, from the beginning, an enormous task. Both sides had to rely on the individual states to uniform and equip the troops being mustered into service.

In the North, states had to contract with private companies to produce the equipment necessary to field the rapidly forming regiments. State armories were often far from fully stocked, and many had only outdated weapons and equipment to issue the troops. States allocated funds to pay and equip their soldiers, and the Federal Government would reimburse the states when they entered Federal service. Federal arsenals quickly began to expand and produce the equipment necessary for the massive numbers of men joining the ranks.
In the South, which did not have the resources of the North, states issued the weapons available to them from state armories and captured Federal arsenals, relying heavily on uniforms made from homespun material by local patriotic groups and families. As in the North, Confederate troops wore their militia uniforms into national service. However, the demand for proper war materials was soon felt by the Southern states, and the Confederate government in Richmond.


THE RAILROADS

The railroad system in the United States during the Civil War consisted of many lines run by many different companies. The rail lines in the North vastly outnumbered those of the South in both number of miles and quality of service. The railroad was a system of varying gauges, meaning that the width between the rails of tracks was left to the company that laid and ran it. Early railroads were not only in competition with freight wagons, canal boats, and steamships, but they were in competition with each other. By not connecting their tracks to each other's lines, the railroads each held monopolies in their own territories.

It was not until the emergency of war that rail lines in the North began to switch to a "standard gauge" - meaning that the width between rails on a train track was the same on all rail lines, regardless of which company ran or controlled them. Under government control, the railroads could be used as the needs of the Army dictated. The railroad was also protected from being commandeered by Army officers, who often lacked rail experience and would tie up the rail lines while trying to run them. The railroads in the North were left to be run by the expert railroad men that knew how to get the men and supplies to where they needed to be.

In the South, the Davis administration held the power to nationalize the Southern railroads, but never did so. By not nationalizing the railroads the Confederate government missed out on an opportunity to effectively utilize that resource, and wasting time and money by negotiating with railroads for their use.

Railroads were still a relatively new technology during the war and both sides soon found out how important they were in war time. The North nationalized the railroads and paid the railroad companies a fair price for the use of them, ensuring their continued prosperity after the war. The South, with its much smaller railroad, did not expand during the war and the Confederate government insisted on paying reduced rates for its use. Although put to good use during the war, Southern railroads were not properly recognized or managed. They could have helped the Confederate Army fight a mobile war by taking advantage of the Confederacy's vast territories and interior lines, while wearing down the North's will to win.

HERMAN HAUPT OF THE U.S.M.R.R.

Herman Haupt, born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania in 1817, graduated from the United States Military Academy in 1835 at the age of 18. A man of incredible ability, Haupt was placed in charge of the newly created United States Military Railroad (U.S.M.R.R.) in April 1862. Charged with building, repairing, maintaining, and operating all military railroads, he took to his work like a man possessed, and ignored anyone that would slow him down. When high ranking Federal officers made demands of the railroad, Haupt sought and received the authority to run the railroad as he saw fit, without interference from military authorities. A general's commission was offered to him, but he refused it, preferring to conduct business as a civilian, avoiding military bureaucracy. He also did not wish to limit his ability to conduct private business which he had been heavily involved in.

Haupt trained his staff and created a corps of engineers that could repair and construct rail lines and bridges in record time. His speed at reconstructing the Potomac Creek Bridge, destroyed by Confederates in early 1862, prompted President Abraham Lincoln to remark, "That man Haupt has built a bridge four hundred feet long and one hundred feet high across Potomac Creek, on which loaded trains are passing every hour. And upon my word, gentlemen, there is nothing in it but cornstalks and beanpoles."

So effective were the lessons learned from Haupt that the railroads were able to keep the trains running smoothly for the rest of the war. Haupt had made many enemies as he toiled for his country and was finally removed from command of the U.S.M.R.R. in September 1863 by Secretary of War Stanton.

NORTHERN WAR SUPPLIES

The U.S. Arsenal in the North prepared to supply tens of thousands of troops in the field by buying raw materials from as many manufacturers as they could find. After the surrender of Fort Sumter, the head of the U.S. Ordnance Department, Colonel James Ripley, sought to purchase 100,000 European made rifles. Secretary of War Simon Cameron denied his request because he felt that the arms being produced by the Springfield Armory and other private contractors would cover the needs of the Federal Army.

After the Northern defeat at Bull Run, it became clear that the war would be long and that more weapons would be needed. Because of the delay, however, Union purchasing agents sent to Europe found that Confederate agents had beaten them to the best suppliers. They were only able to purchase small quantities of mostly condemned muskets and rifles. Over time however, the United States was able to acquire thousands of better-made European arms.

With the use of so many different types of firearms in the Army, demand for ammunition was great. Initially, regimental commanders would contact the arsenals directly to supply their ammunition needs, but this quickly began to cause logistical problems as hundreds of orders came in from many different sources. Soon, the Ordnance Department published a circular outlining Paragraph 9 of the War Department's Order Number 120, stating:

"Issues of ordnance, arms, ammunition, or other supplies from the arsenals, will be made only on orders from the Ordnance Office, and requisitions for all such supplies as may be wanted for troops, will be sent to that office, instead of the Arsenal direct."

This directive made it possible to prioritize the need for ammunition from a central office before the order was filled, and lessened the logistical headaches.

As troops began to arrive in Washington, many had state issued equipment which did not meet military standards. Some even had gray uniforms! However, as no other source of supply was ready, the state equipment, including gray militia uniforms, had to be used. To better outfit the armies, huge supplies of textiles were purchased by the Quartermaster Department and arsenals began to manufacture uniforms and leather equipment. The arsenals would cut the uniform materials into kits and contract with local seamstresses to sew them together, paying a set amount for each uniform piece. The government also contracted with many suppliers to produce equipment to government specifications. All of these sources soon had the Northern army well supplied and outfitted.

SOUTHERN WAR SUPPLIES

Only one major Federal arsenal stood in the states taken by the Confederacy: the arsenal at Baton Rouge, Louisiana. It had been used by the War Department as a staging area for weapons being sent to the Western territories for use against Native American warriors. Aside from that, however, there were few factories in the Confederacy that could produce weapons or ammunition. In addition, only one foundry in the South was large enough to produce cannon: the Tredegar Iron Works in Richmond, Virginia.

As a result, the Confederacy had to seek other sources of war materials from outside the South. The Confederate government recruited Captain Caleb Huse as its purchasing agent in England. Huse managed to capitalize on English sympathy for the Confederate cause by contracting with British and other European suppliers of small arms before the Union agents could do so. These timely actions allowed the Confederate government to gain a large supply of European-made arms, leaving Northern agents to purchase what inferior weapons remained. Imported arms continued to play a part in arming the Confederate Army until the last Confederate port was closed by Union forces in February 1865.

Another source of weapons and war materials for the Confederacy were those captured in battle. Federal arms that had been stockpiled in the arsenals of the Southern states quickly fell in the hands of the Confederacy. One major victory for the Southerners was the capture of rifle-producing machinery at Harpers Ferry in April 1861, just days after the capture of Fort Sumter. Union forces at Harpers Ferry tried to burn the arsenal before falling back, but Confederate citizens of the town extinguished the flames in time to save the machinery. The machines were sent to an arsenal at Fayetteville, North Carolina to produce rifles for the Confederate military.

NORTHERN FOOD SUPPLIES

Throughout the war, Union troops were sustained by the abundance of farms and factories in the North, and the systems that were in place to deliver the products of them. The Federal Army was fortunate that their Quartermaster's Department was a trained and functioning part of the military when the war began. This proved to be an enormous advantage over the Confederate Army, whose entire force was practically starting from scratch.

The Quartermaster Department is among the most important departments in any army. Without the flow of supplies provided by the Quartermaster Department, no army could sustain itself. The Quartermaster provides uniforms, tents, transportation, and, most importantly, food for soldiers. The extensive rail lines that connected the Northern states kept supplies flowing to the front as the Union forces advanced into Confederate territories.
By standards of the time, the Union Army was well fed. However, troops moved so quickly that they often had to wait for their supply trains to catch up to them. Several days' rations of hardtack, coffee, and salt pork were issued to the troops before a long march to be carried in their haversacks and eaten at intervals, until supply lines could be re-established.

OPERATING IN ENEMY TERRITORY

When the Army of Northern Virginia crossed the Potomac River in June of 1863, General Robert E. Lee issued orders that any soldier caught in the act of looting, stealing, or causing unnecessary damage to personal property of civilians would be severely punished. Orders had been given that commanding officers would acquire only that which was necessary to sustain the army and that any personal property taken as such would be paid for at a reasonable price in Confederate script. Unfortunately for property owners in Maryland and Pennsylvania, the Confederate money given to them as compensation was worthless. The Army of Northern Virginia was able to sustain itself very well in the Pennsylvania countryside, away from the battle-scarred fields and privations of Virginia.

After the Union Army under General Sherman captured and burned Atlanta, they began their march to the sea. Cutting themselves off from all supply lines, the Federals lived off the land in Georgia. In a state previously untouched by war, the vast Union army had no trouble acquiring the food necessary to sustain both men and animals. General Sherman issued orders to respect personal property of those not hostile to the Union as the soldiers moved. While General Sherman did not want his men to destroy personal property, he did expect them to destroy any structures, equipment supporting industry or agriculture, or stores of food that could possibly aid the enemy. This left a fair amount open for interpretation to Sherman's troops, and the result was a 60-mile wide and 275-mile long swath of destruction through Georgia from Atlanta to Savannah.

SOUTHERN FOOD SUPPLIES

The one type of food that Southern troops seemed to have an endless supply of was cornmeal, a type of flour made from dried corn. By the end of the war, however, even that was becoming very scarce. With the blockade of their coastline and an ever advancing Northern army, the Confederate states were slowly starving to death. The South was mainly agriculturally based, but cash crops such as cotton and tobacco used up the majority of available land. These crops, so valuable for trade with Europe, sat on the docks waiting for ships that would never come in.

In the early years of the war, the Shenandoah Valley was the breadbasket of the Confederacy. Before long, however, it became a waste land of scorched earth. Southern officers were authorized to pay farmers for supplies to feed their soldiers, but with the value of Confederate dollars shrinking, this was not a popular proposition for many citizens struggling to survive in a devastated country. As the war continued, rations became scarce, and Southern soldiers often went with less than half of what their Northern counterparts did.

PAY FOR NORTHERN TROOPS

As the patriotic spirit spread through the North, men joined the ranks by the thousands. Early in the war, some towns formed committees to raise funds to pay bounties for the volunteers who were marching off to defend their country. When the soldiers left for war, they were confident that their communities would care for their loved ones while they were away, and most communities had the best intentions of honoring their promises to do so.

But as the war continued and months began to pass, the confidence of the times began to sink under the crushing reality of a long and bloody war. The soldier in the field would receive desperate letters from home describing scenes of hunger and destitution. Most fighting men with families to support sent home as much money as they could, but the pay was unimaginably slow in coming. It was often nearly six months between pays before the men saw a paymaster in their camp. Drinking and gambling was a problem for commanders in both armies and many soldiers would lose all of their pay to these vices.

Paymasters, however, faced their own challenges. They were responsible for paying thousands of men and keeping track of every payment sent and received. It would often take months for a paymaster to locate the men he was to pay because regiments were constantly on the move. In addition, many paymasters had no intention of going into a combat environment to conduct business, which only further delayed the payment of soldiers.

WAGON SUPPLY TRAINS

Both the Northern and Southern armies relied on large wagon trains to haul supplies to distant areas that could not be reached by railroads. These wagon trains needed protection from the enemy just as the rail lines did. Raids on wagon trains were common practice to disrupt supply lines and capture enemy supplies. Wagon trains could stretch up to ten miles in length when supplying an army, and were particularly vulnerable to cavalry attacks. Captured supplies were especially needed in the South, where the lack of raw materials and manufacturing capabilities were not able to keep up with the demand for war materials. Captured Confederate supply wagons were generally destroyed unless there was an immediate need for their contents. Wagons not destroyed were turned over to the Quartermaster department, which would sort the contents and reissue them to soldiers.

HARRISBURG
Harrisburg had always been an important rail center in the North, even before the Civil War. Four of the country's largest railroads converged at Harrisburg: the Reading Railroad, the Pennsylvania Railroad, the Cumberland Valley Railroad, and the Northern Central Railroad. Several smaller railroads, such as the Schuylkill and Susquehanna Railroad (north of Harrisburg), and the Columbia and York Railroad (south of Harrisburg) added to the importance of these lines.

Suddenly, after April 1861, the city saw a change in the materials traversing the tracks. No longer were the trains full of the building materials and luxuries of everyday life. Harrisburg was now a major artery for moving fighting men and the necessities of war. With the establishment of Camp Curtin and other training camps, thousands of men flooded into the city to join the great Union armies marching south. Twice during the war, General Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia targeted Harrisburg as a means to cut off that vital supply line to the Northern armies. When the Keystone State was threatened, trains carrying troops from all over Pennsylvania and New York gathered at Harrisburg to stop the Confederate Army. Harrisburg was spared from both attempts, when the Confederates were turned back at Sharpsburg, Maryland in 1862 and again at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania in 1863.